Annotated Resources on achieving Education for All through public–private partnerships

Prepared by Frances Hunt

This bibliography provides summary information on recent research on the role of non-state providers (NSPs) of education in developing countries. Within the context of Education for All (EFA) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), states and international donors are paying greater attention to the role NSPs can play in reaching educational targets. Yet how NSPs engage with the state is not fully understood. This annotated bibliography highlights research that explores relations between NSPs and the state in providing education. It covers a large geographic spread and a range of methodological approaches.

The selected books, articles, and papers highlight a range of debates, arguing overall that NSPs play an increasingly important role in education, often providing services in communities where governments do not or cannot reach, or to groups of children (e.g. child workers or older girls) who are unable to attend public schools. The studies do not see NSPs working well in every situation, however. Questions are raised, for example, as to whether the very poor have the choice to avail themselves of low-cost private providers of education in countries such as India and Kenya. There are different perspectives on the extent to which NSPs should take on what is often seen as the role of government. Some research argues that the growth of NSPs (and especially private providers) can contribute to achieving EFA. Others, however, call for greater emphasis on state provision to ensure equitable access, while some call for a ‘complementarity of effort’. NSP–state relations differ according to the type of provider (whether for-profit, non-governmental, or religious, for example). Recognising that in many settings non-state provision is a reality, the research highlighted here generally calls for closer relations between state and non-state providers, including regulation of services and the appropriate monitoring of NSP quality.

Aga Khan Foundation Team (2007) Non-State Providers and Public-Private-Community Partnerships in Education, Background Paper prepared for the EFA GMR 2008, Paris: UNESCO, available here (retrieved 22 February 2010).

This paper looks at the role NSPs can play to help achieve EFA, focusing on state–non-state relations in education provision. It highlights tensions sometimes felt between the state and NSPs where there is concern over the latters’ role. Governments may be unsure of quality of non-state provision, especially where adequate monitoring procedures are not in place and may find it difficult to accept NSPs carrying out a role they feel they should (but have been unable) to fulfil. While many governments turn a blind eye to NSPs, some work towards partnerships between the state and the non-state sector, and some see the benefits NSPs bring in, for example, in reaching marginalised groups and building capacity. This paper looks at ways in which the state and NSPs can work together and at some of the limits to these partnerships. It provides numerous examples of state–non-state partnerships and provides recommendations on how states might use the non-state sector to reach EFA goals.

Arnove, R. and R. Christina (1998) ‘NGO–state relations: an argument in favor of the state and complementarity of efforts’, Current Issues in Comparative Education 1(1): 46–48, available here (retrieved 22 February 2010).

This article looks at how increased donor funding for NSPs in developing countries may have benefits in terms of strengthening civil society and improving efficiency, but may also have detrimental effects on the state as a provider of health and education services. The authors reiterate the importance of the state as a provider and a policy maker, and highlight some of the limitations of NSPs (in particular NGOs), including limits on funding and sustainability. Their central argument focuses on the need for 'complementarity of effort' between the state and NGOs. They look at various examples of state–non-state relations from Nicaragua, Palestine, and Papua New Guinea to explore the limits as well as the possibilities for complementarity.

Asadullah, M. N. and N. Chaudhury (2007) ‘Madrasas and NGOs: complements or substitutes? non-state providers and growth in female education in Bangladesh’, Policy Research Working Paper, Washington, DC, World Bank. Available here (retrieved 22 February 2010).

This report looks at the role of play in delivering services to marginalised communities in Bangladesh. In particular it looks at NGO-run schools and the feminisation of madrasas for secondary school pupils. The report argues for the importance of NGO primary providers, such as BRAC, in terms of their knock-on effects on female enrolments in secondary madrasa schools. The feminisation of madrasas is also seen as a positive step in increasing female enrolments, alongside the government-funded conditional cash-transfer scheme. In Bangladesh, NGOs, such as BRAC, are largely donor-funded, but the government generally allows them to operate with minimal interference. The authors suggest that government policy should support NGOs to deliver services in rural areas, such as those provided by BRAC.

Bano, M. (2007a) Allowing for diversity: state–madrasa relations in Bangladesh, Religions and Development Research Programme, Birmingham: University of Birmingham. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This paper looks at state-administered madrasa modernisation programmes in Bangladesh, where Aliya (reformed) madrasas combine secular subjects with religious education. Around 30 per cent of secondary students in Bangladesh are in Aliya madrasas. Bano argues that children in Aliya madrasas are being educated to compete for teaching jobs, rather than to become religious leaders, which is the role of Qomi madrasas. This means that such madrasa modernisation programmes will have limited effects on the nature of Islam, but do provide a suitable way to promote education in a conservative society where religious education is also important.

Bano, M. (2007b) Contesting ideologies and struggle for authority: state-madrasa engagement in Pakistan, Religions and Development Research Programme, Birmingham: University of Birmingham. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

The Government of Pakistan launched a madrasa reform programme in 2002 in the hope of introducing modern subjects into the madrasa curriculum in order to integrate students more readily into the mainstream economy and society. This report looks at how the madrasas have resisted these changes, with fewer than 200 out of 16,000 madrasas registered with the reform programme. This resistance is due to weak political will and strong madrasa leadership. Bano argues that for the state to work more successfully with madrasas in Pakistan, senior ulema (scholars) need to be included within the reform process. The state also needs to shift the focus away from secularising madrasas by adding a modern curriculum, accepting their role in producing Islamic knowledge and looking into including modern interpretations of religious texts into the classroom. Once larger madrasas are included in reforms, smaller madrasas may follow.

Bano, M. (2008a) Engaged yet disengaged: Islamic schools and state in Kano, Non Governmental Public Action Programme, Birmingham: University of Birmingham. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

While many governments in South Asia look to reform madrasas, this report shows a more tolerant relationship between state and madrasas in Kano State, Nigeria. Reasons for the different approaches come down to different relationships between state and religion. In Kano State, Sufi groups rarely engage with politics unless Islam is seen to be under threat. In South Asia the revivalist Islamic movements are dominant and actively seek political power. In Kano, the state has tried to support the Islamic schooling system and is inclined to develop an integrated system combining secular and religious education in state schools. Other factors important in Kano state are the ban on religious political parties, the nature and duration of colonial rule, and the formality of religious schools. The paper shows the relationship between state and religious schools as interactive and responsive, rather than static. It indicates the importance of historical and institutional factors in shaping state–non-state relations.

Bano, M. (2008b) Idara-Taleem-o-Aagahi's partnerships with the Ministry of Education, Non Governmental Public Action Programme. Birmingham: University of Birmingham. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This paper looks at Idara-Taleem-o-Aagahi's (ITA) partnerships with the Ministry of Education in Pakistan. ITA, a large NGO, is one of a growing number of NSPs of education services that has formed a relationship with government. It works in more than 400 government schools, running 350 donor-funded non-formal schools housed in government buildings, and training government teachers. ITA has multi-layered interactions with the state, which include policy influence, teacher training, and undertaking school-improvement training. The paper looks at the nature of these relations and identifies strengths and weaknesses. On the positive side ITA has developed a relationship with government that responds to ITA's needs. On the more negative side, ITA provides fixed-term project-based support, which is often not sustainable and does not engage government officials in designing the programme. While NSPs with external funding, such as ITA, are more attractive to government, their donors have an agenda that might not always tie in with that of government.

Bano, M. (2008c) Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) as ‘anchor’ of educational reforms: lessons from Pakistan, Background Paper prepared for the EFA GMR 2009, Paris: UNESCO. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This paper looks at Public–Private Partnerships (PPPs) in terms of education delivery in Pakistan. Between 2001 and 2007, PPPs were the government’s main strategy to address access, quality, and equity. PPPs worked through the Government Non Formal Basic Education (NFBE) programme with the private sector and NGOs providing aspects of education through a variety of schools and programmes. While some PPP models were successful, there were in general limitations to PPPs in Pakistan. These included the ad hoc nature of PPPs, the lack of systemic impact, and financial unsustainability (much NGO provision was funded externally). NGOs lacked the resources to pursue models on a large scale and private schools did not serve the poorest communities. The author argues that PPPs have limited ability to address EFA goals because state officials distrust NGOs and the private sector; and ad hoc efforts could lead to further fragmentation of delivery. In terms of addressing equity goals little progress can be made if secondary schools do not exist in the same area or are private.

Bano, M. and P. Nair (2007) Faith based organisations in south Asia: historical evolution, current status and nature of interaction with the state, Religions and Development Research Programme, Birmingham: University of Birmingham. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This paper examines how the state interacts with various faith-based organisations (FBOs) in South Asia. There are different types of FBO and each has different relations with state. The paper argues that FBOs that provide educational services are more likely to gain state attention because of the power they exert in the public sphere. In this context, madrasas have been subject to various levels of state-led reform in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan. While the state may be interested in improving the quality and quantity of education in madrasas, ideas about the content of education can differ between state and religious groups, leading to tension concerning curriculum content. The outcomes of these conflicts are located in historical, cultural, and political power relations, which differ from country to country.

Barrera-Osorio, F., H. A. Patrinos, et al. (2009) Emerging evidence on vouchers and Faith-Based Providers in Education: Case Studies from Africa, Latin America, and Asia, Washington, DC: World Bank. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This edited volume introduces empirical research on PPPs from Africa, Asia, and Latin America, focusing specifically on voucher schemes, faith-based providers, and private schools. The editors identify PPPs as a means of making progress towards EFA and improving the quality of education. They argue if governments provide financial support to non-state schools they can thereby improve choice of schooling. However they suggest that goals of equity and efficiency need to be kept in mind, particularly where private providers are serving poor communities. Many of the contributors look at how PPP schools perform against public schools and in many cases evidence suggests they perform better, helping to identify schools and children who might benefit from PPPs.

Batley, R. A. and G. A. Larbi (2004) The Changing Role of Government: The reform of public services in developing countries, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan

This book looks at how governments in the North have cut back their role in favour of the private sector and examines the extent to which government practices in the North can and should be replicated in developing and transitional economies. It draws on research mainly from India, Ghana, Sri Lanka, and Zimbabwe in the fields of agricultural trade, urban water supply, health, and business development. Chapters include sections on how governments regulate and work with the private sector, how governments contract-out work, and how they work with private partners to provide services.

Batley, R. A. (ed.) (2006) ‘Special Issue on non-state provision of basic services’, Public Administration and Development 26(3).

This special issue includes articles commissioned by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) to identify whether, how, and under what conditions governments can work positively with NSPs to support and improve the non-state provision of basic services. The focus is on identifying and analysing types of engagement between government and NSPs and how these affect service delivery. Four categories of engagement are analysed: policy dialogue, regulation of NSPs, facilitation of NSPs, and commissioning service delivery by NSPs. The articles address three sectors: primary education, healthcare, and water and sanitation, and draw on research from Bangladesh, India, Malawi, Nigeria, Pakistan, and South Africa. The article by Pauline Rose suggests there were few examples of governments proactively supporting pro-poor non-state provision of basic education in the five countries; the most common example of government-initiated involvement with NSPs being in relation to registration and regulation.

Bray, M. (2009) Confronting the shadow education system. What government policies for private tutoring? Paris: IIEP.

This book examines the practice of private supplementary tutoring which is increasingly evident in a number of developing countries, but receives limited attention from education planners and policy makers. While there are many benefits (helping children to learn, increased socialisation, income generation), there are many less positive aspects. Private tutoring may increase social inequalities, restrict children's leisure time, and may also be perceived as a form of corruption. In some countries, for example, teachers have applied pressure on their students to take additional paid-for classes. While many governments ignore private supplementary tutoring, the author argues for the need to confront the issues associated with it. Doing this would include mapping contexts, objectives, and structures, then addressing ways to shape demand and/or supply. Responses to private tutoring would depend on the specific circumstances of the tutoring.

Christina, R. (2006) Tend the olive, water the vine: globalization and the negotiation of early childhood in Palestine, Stamford, CT: Information Age Publishing.

This book provides an in-depth study into an NGO providing early childhood development services in Palestine. The author acknowledges the difficulties many national NGOs face in working with external donors at the same time as working within national government structures. Often these relations can be restrictive, with multiple requirements and poor communications. External funders are seen as the 'providers' and 'empowerers' in an unequal partnership. The book examines the complexities of negotiations between a Palestinian-based NGO, government, external funders, and the local community over funding priorities, programme content, and the nature of supervision. It demonstrates how local NGOs are not just recipients of aid, but can also inform and teach their partners.

Commins, S. (2006) Service delivery in fragile states: the challenge for donors Paris: OECD DAC. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This paper looks at service delivery in fragile states and brings together ideas and experiences on how policy makers (particularly donors) can best support service delivery in such contexts, where accountability, administrative capacity, and financial resources can be poorly mobilised. Fragility disrupts service-delivery systems and undermines the effectiveness of both public and non-state agencies. Many services are provided poorly, unevenly, or not at all. In fragile environments, national policy makers may not be able to provide or coordinate effective service delivery, and often donor agencies provide support, working directly with service providers. Donor agencies may also need to work alongside government, identifying the extent to which they can still provide services and whether they are willing to do so. The extent to which a government is a willing and able partner often dictates whether donors can work alongside or outside government and directly with providers. The paper provides insights into relations among donors, governments, and NGOs in fragile environments.

DeStefano, J., A.M. Schuh Moore, D. Balwanz, and A. Hartwell (2007) Reaching the Underserved: Complementary Models of Effective Schooling, Washington, DC: EQUIP2. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

A guiding question for the USAID-funded EQUIP programme was how equitable access to education could be provided for all children. To that end, this research looks the experiences of complementary models of service provision that successfully reach underserved populations. These models are often created as partnerships among communities, NGOs, and the government, with the aim of enrolling previously excluded children into the public system. The paper draws on case-study research of nine examples of complementary, community-based approaches to schooling from South Asia, Latin America, and sub-Saharan Africa. The research looks at comparisons of the costs and learning outcomes associated with students in complementary programmes versus public schools, and findings suggest that complementary providers can show govern¬ment schools how to reach underserved populations. It argues that complementary education programmes are frequently equal to or better than the government schools in terms of improving access, completion, and learning outcomes.

Draxler, A. (2008) New Partnerships for EFA: Building on Experience, Paris: UNESCO-IIEP. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This paper was commissioned by UNESCO and the World Education Forum to provide background information for the Partnerships for Education (PfE) programme, which seeks to create a global coalition of multi-stakeholder partnerships for education (MSPE) in order to advance progress towards EFA. The paper reviews the literature on public–private and MSPEs. It looks at which private-sector organisations are involved in such partnerships, what the partnerships do, and draws policy lessons from them. New partnerships in the education sector should be grounded in wider ongoing efforts (e.g. the Fast Track Initiative, donor harmonisation) to avoid fragmentation and encourage coherence. The paper also highlights some of the difficulties with Public–Private Partnerships (PPPs) in terms of different motivations, goals, and requirements. Conclusions and recommendations identify that partnerships are not suitable for all situations; more regulation and guidelines are needed; new partnerships should start with a clear understanding of needs and goals; MSPE might not always reduce costs; and transparency is important.

Emmett, B. with D. Green, M. Lawson, B., Calaguas, S. Aikman, M. Kamal-Yanni, and I. Smyth (2006) In the Public Interest: Health, Education, and Water and Sanitation for All, Oxford: Oxfam in association with WaterAid. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This report emphasises the importance of government taking responsibility for essential services (in this case education and health) in developing countries. It argues that civil society
and private companies can contribute to service provision, but only government can reach the scale to provide universal access to services that are free or heavily subsidised. Civil-society and private-sector contributions should be properly regulated and integrated into strong public systems, rather than being seen as substitutes for them. Governments can and should be supported by partnerships with international agencies and Northern governments. The paper draws out recommendations for governments in developing counties, international agencies, richer countries, and civil society to enhance the role of government in providing essential services in developing countries.

Farrington, J. and A. Bebbington (1993) Reluctant Partners? Non-governmental organisations, the state and sustainable agricultural development, London: Routledge.

This book looks at the potential and limitations of the role of NGOs in the agricultural sector, drawing on empirical research from 70 case studies drawn from Latin America, Africa, and Asia. NGOs play an increasing role in service delivery and capacity building in the agricultural sector with both governments and donors working with them. However these new relations are not without drawbacks and the authors suggest NGOs that work with government and donors can at times compromise their integrity and performance. As part of the study, the research looks at how NGOs work with government, government research institutes, the private sector, and other organisations, and the motives behind these relations as well as why other NGOs and government chose not to work with each other. Specific questions raised include how effective NGOs are in strengthening local organisations and how donor pressures influence NGOs and their links to the state.

Fernando, S. U. H. (2007) Uneasy Encounters: Relationships between Dutch Donors and Sri Lankan NGOs, unpublished PhD thesis, Universiteit van Amsterdam, available here (retrieved 22 February 2010).

This thesis examines relations between Dutch co-financing agencies (i.e. 'Northern private aid agencies' and funders of technical assistance and finance to the South) and Sri Lankan NGOs, who are recipients of Northern funding and technical assistance. Many argue that Northern private aid agencies (largely funded by Northern governments) are better equipped than their governments to work with Southern NGOs, and that the latter are in turn better able to reach beneficiaries. This relationship is seen to be value-added, with the relationship itself and the process of co-operation as important as any outcomes. The author queries these assumptions and claims. The main objective is to understand how the relations are conceived and evolve under changing circumstances. The author looks at why some relations seem to work while others fail, and at who drives the relationships.

Friedman, M. (1995) Public Schools: Make Them Private, Briefing Paper 23, Washington, DC: Cato Institute. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This paper argues that more private providers need to be brought into the elementary and secondary school systems in the USA, to offer increased learning opportunities and competition to public schools. In order to do this, each US state could run a voucher system that would allow parents to choose the school they wanted. Vouchers would be universal, available to all parents, and worth enough to ensure a high-quality education. The author argues that increasing the number of private providers would force public schools to improve in order to retain students, thus improving the overall quality of schools. It would also encourage innovative practices that current service providers do not offer. Some parents might be able to supplement the voucher in order to get a better education, which would in turn improve other schools. In the author’s view, privatisation would also encourage more talent to enter the teaching profession.

Green, C. (2005) The Privatization of State Education: Public Partners, Private Dealings, Oxford: Routledge.

The book looks at the role of free-market forces and private companies in the provision of schooling and educational services. The author argues that private companies working in collaboration with other companies and with national and local government can be innovative and powerful and partnerships between the private and public sector build improvements. Thus, private involvement in educational provision would improve standards and improve the quality of schooling. This book examines how the privatisation of education is taking place in the UK; it looks at influences that drive networks of relations, public partners, and private dealings shaping education. The aim is to improve the quality of education and the author looks at how private and public bodies might work together to achieve this.

Härmä, J. (2010) School choice for the poor? The limits of marketisation of primary education in rural India, CREATE Pathways to Access, Brighton: University of Sussex. Available here (retrieved 22 February 2010).

This monograph examines the increase in low-fee private providers of schooling in rural India and looks at the extent to which these are accessible to and affordable for the rural poor. Data were gathered from 13 villages, including 250 households and 26 private and government schools in Uttar Pradesh. The research examines parental decision making, costs, and participation in schools. The conclusions suggest that households below the second quintile of income are unlikely to be able to afford low-fee providers, sending their children to state school or not at all, creating a hierarchy of access according to their wealth. The research also highlights the lack of competition between public schools and low-fee private providers, where the quality of schooling in public schools is not affected by the growth among the latter. It reinforces the role of the state as provider of last resort.

Hoppers, W. (2006) Non formal education and basic education reform: a conceptual review, Paris: UNESCO. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

The benefits that non-formal education (NFE) providers can bring to the education of marginalised and vulnerable children are recognised. The numbers and range of NFE providers continue to grow, with more donors funding non-formal initiatives. Ministries of Education are also becoming interested in the role of NFE providers and how they work in relation to state provision. In some countries, services for the marginalised (either formal or non-formal) are enhanced by the involvement of civil society in the planning and development of education programmes. A major current concern is how NFE works with (and influences) the formal education system, the extent to which they can be integrated and initiatives sustained. The paper identifies problems of NFE within different socio-economic contexts; reviews current initiatives; and provides policy makers and planners with ways to take NFE forward. These include identifying which forms of educational provision are of prime concern to policy makers and debating the integration of formal and non-formal education under an overarching systematic framework. Policy recommendations include: developing parameters for minimum conditions and criteria for good basic education, assessing the needs of all children and identifying how education providers could meet those needs, identifying the provision that currently exists in its various forms, and reconstructing the education system so it can include a diversity of forms.

Hoppers, W. (2007) Meeting the Learning Needs of all Young People and Adults: an Exploration of Successful Policies and Strategies in Non-formal Education, Background Paper prepared for the EFA GMR 2000, Paris: UNESCO. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This paper looks at the development of policies and strategies related to non-formal education (NFE) for young people and adults in the South and focuses on the evolution of policies and strategies for action in Brazil, Burkina Faso, Namibia, Uganda, and Thailand. It argues that in countries where policy had already been holistic, i.e. integrating aspects of basic and continuing education and moving towards lifelong learning, had better strategies for policy implementation of NFE. Innovations include policy coordination, inter-sectoral linkages, collaborative governance, decentralisation, instructor development and support, and mobilisation of funding and programme sustainability. Yet, NFE on the whole remains poorly funded and monitored with weak links to the formal system.

Hoppers, W. (2008) Integrating formal and non formal basic education: policy and practice in Uganda, Paris: UNESCO. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This report looks at how Ministries of Education, with their national and international partners, seek to integrate forms of non-formal education (NFE) that focus on getting the vulnerable and marginalised into mainstream education. Experience in Uganda illustrates factors that appear to influence the success of such initiatives, which include political will, timing, the role NGOs have played, communication mechanisms, and leadership. The author also identifies challenges for stakeholders, which include policy formulation, partnerships, legal frameworks, institutional arrangements, and resource mobilisation. It is based on an assumption that different providers, providing more flexible education, can help reach those children previously excluded from school and that non-formal and formal education initiatives can often be better integrated.

Hulme, D. and M. Edwards (eds.) (1997) NGOs, State and Donors: Too Close for Comfort, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

This edited volume addresses the rise in the number of development NGOs and the causes and consequences of NGO growth in a range of countries. Specifically it is concerned with relationships between NGOs, governments, and donor agencies, and how these relations are evolving and their impacts on state–society relations, development cooperation, the reductionm of poverty, and the interests of poor people. It includes case studies of NGOs in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and Latin American. There is debate on the extent to which NGOs are being co-opted by donors through the availability of aid to implement their policies. The emergent picture is complex, but there is some sense that NGOs are moving closer to donors and governments, and further from the poor and disempowered whom they seek to assist. The main conclusion is that NGOs should return to their roots if they are to promote the reduction of poverty on a large scale.

Jiminez, E. and M. E. Lockheed (1995) Public and private secondary education in developing countries: a comparative study, Washington, DC: World Bank.

This report looks at the role of private and public providers in educational provision. It collates research comparing private and public secondary school costs and achievements in Colombia, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, Tanzania, and Thailand that asked whether a secondary-school pupil would perform better in a private or public school. Statistical analysis compares performance, taking into account background, prior performance, motivation etc. The costs of public and private schools are also compared. The findings suggest that students from similar backgrounds performed better in private schools; the unit costs of private schools were lower than public schools; and that private schools are organised for greater school-level decision making. The paper does not call for the abolition of public schools, but suggests that governments in some cases could encourage greater private-sector participation in education and public schools could emulate private schools in some ways. It is presumed that private schools provide education in a cost-effective way.

LaRoque, N. (2006) Contracting for the Delivery of Education Services: a typology and international examples, Wellington, NZ: Education Forum. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This report examines how governments are increasingly contracting-out the delivery of educational services, looking at the form that this might take, some of the benefits, and provides examples. It looks at the private management of public schools, PPPs, government contracting with the private sector for the delivery of education services, and private-sector administrative and curriculum support. Government contracting-out of educational services may improve efficiency and cost effectiveness, offer greater access to skills, and fewer salary constraints. Ineffective contracting can, however, increase costs. The paper draws lessons from international experience to help in the design and implementation of contracting in the education sector.

LaRoque, N. (2008) Public-private partnerships in basic education: an international review, Reading: CFBT. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This literature review looks at international experience with PPPs in basic education. Many countries are increasingly using PPPs to enhance service delivery and financing of education. This may be in the form of private philanthropic initiatives, private-sector management initiatives, private school-funding programmes (e.g. subsidies and vouchers), adopt-a-school programmes, capacity-building initiatives, and school infrastructure partnerships. The review provides examples of innovative PPPs and lessons learned, drawing on examples from Africa, the Americas, Asia, Australasia, Europe, and the Middle East. It shows that private participation in basic education is not necessarily for better-off children, with PPPs often aimed at communities previously marginalised from education services. The author claims PPPs can help governments achieve policy objectives, but good policy design, careful implementation, and effective political management are also required.

Lewin, K. M. and Y. Sayed (2005) Non-Government Secondary Schooling in Sub-Saharan Africa: Exploring the Evidence in South Africa and Malawi, London: DFID. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This book examines the development of non-governmental secondary education in sub-Saharan Africa, with empirical research carried out in Malawi and South Africa. Demand for secondary schooling has risen as the numbers of children in primary school increases, but the prioritisation of primary schooling in many countries has meant limited public investment in secondary schools. Some argue that the growth of secondary school enrolments can be enabled through non-government institutions and through partnerships between state and non-government agencies. This research looks at the range of non governmental provision at secondary level; the policy frameworks in which non-government and quasi-government schools operate; and how non-government provision may develop in the future, with guidance for policy makers. The authors argue for the importance of non-governmental providers, especially where the state is failing to deliver services, but that this provision needs to be regulated and monitored. It also identifies three ways for governments to work with non-governmental institutions: a laissez-faire attitude to non-governmental institutions, without regulation or monitoring; managed growth, with explicit goals and public consensus; and/or public–private partnerships where the boundaries between public and private become blurred.

Manor, J. (2002) Partnerships between Governments and Civil Society for Service Delivery in Less Developed Countries: Cause for Concern, paper presented at World Development Report 2003/4 Meeting, Oxford. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This paper highlights concerns about partnerships for service delivery between governments and civil-society organisations (CSOs) in less developed countries. Not all partnerships are bad and there are a number of positive benefits to such partnerships. However, drawing on interview data with CSOs, donor agencies, and specialists at the World Bank, the paper presents evidence of the negative implications of such partnerships. These include: divisions between CSOs as some are selected to be partners with government, and others not; little CSO control over service delivery; and CSOs being co-opted to support government policy, with less time to pursue other goals. The author also suggests that lower-level government employees often seek to undermine CSOs and see them as a threat to public-sector dominance. In some cases government employees find the changes associated with working with CSOs often difficult to manage, e.g. employing more inclusive working practices, which can lead to the alienation of CSOs.

Meyer, H.-D. and W. Boyd (eds.) (2001) Education between state, markets, and civil society: comparative perspectives, London: L. Erbaum Associates.

This edited volume includes chapters on state and non-state relations in a range of Northern countries. It looks at how civil society, markets, governments, and families can work together to broaden the view of legitimate forms of educational organisation and discusses how civil society can be used to reframe and re-conceptualise issues of educational governance and policy, drawing debates away from purely market or government orientations. A central focus of the book is multiculturalism and the need for an educational response which accommodates this. It is argued government-organised education promotes uniformity, whereas involving civil society and /or private–public partnerships could provide more diverse responses to educational provision.

Nair, P. (2008) Door Step School and Bombay Municipal Corporation: a mutually convenient relationship, Non Governmental Public Action Programme, Birmingham: University of Birmingham. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This report explores the relationship between the Door Step School, a non-state provider of educational services in Mumbai, and the Education Department of the Bombay Municipal Corporation (BMC). The empirical study looks at how this relationship has changed and become more formal over time and the factors which have helped shape these changes and interactions. A central argument is that government and NSPs involved in service delivery are conditioned by their organisational/institutional structures and policies, which may cause tensions in service delivery. It also argues the manner in which the relationship is organised affects the capacity of partners to control the purpose and process of delivering services. The paper suggests the relationship between the Door Step School and the BMC has been aided by their common goal of bringing out-of-school children into the state system. There are several areas of tension. For example, the need for the NGO to get permission each year from the BMC for one of its activities creates uncertainty and is time consuming; requirements for students to sit standardised exams; and reporting requirements placed on the Door Step School. The relationship has elements of horizontal co-production as well as vertical contracting.

Nair, P. (2008) The state and madrasas in India. Non Governmental Public Action Programme, Birmingham: University of Birmingham. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This paper looks at the relationship between the state and madrasas in India, which has been shaped over time by the nature of the state and the changing relationship between state and Islamic religious leaders. Today this relationship is shaped by the perception of madrasas as 'minority institutions' in India where Islam is not the dominant religion, and by political ideology and electoral interests. Madrasas, for their part, are not organised enough to negotiate with the state for support on their own terms. The paper explains how government seeks to modernise madrasas, although participation in modernisation processes is voluntary. Larger madrasas are able to keep out of the state-funded programme, but smaller madrasas often comply with state demands. It is the financial independence and the ability to raise resources that determines the relationship between madrasa and state. The author argues that both sides have a cautious relationship, wary of confrontation and limited to key issues of raising literacy and education levels (state focus) and religious education (madrasa focus).

Nair, P. (2009) Religious political parties and their welfare work: relations between the RSS, the Bharatiya Janata Party and the Vidya Bharati schools in India, Religions and Development Research Programme, Birmingham: University of Birmingham. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This report focuses on religious political parties that engage in welfare provision in India and some of the tensions this creates. Specifically it looks at the relationships between the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), which has strong ideological and historical bonds with the Rashtriya Swayamsewak Sangh (RSS) a 'social service organisation' promoting cultural nationalism, and Vidya Bharati schools an educational offshoot of the RSS. The Vidya Bharati schools, it is argued, seek to groom young minds to the idea of a Hindu nation, central tenets of the BJP and RSS. The BJP gains acceptance and ideological moorings through its relationship with the schools, but their relationship is one of convenience, rather than long-term commitment.

Patrinos, H. A., F. Barrera-Osorio, et al. (2009) The role and impact of private–public partnerships in education, Washington, DC: World Bank. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This book looks at PPPs in education, with a focus on contracting models at the primary and secondary education levels. It presents a conceptualisation of the issues related to PPPs, a review of studies, and guidelines on how to create successful PPPs in education. It draws on international evidence on PPPs from a range of countries in Africa, Asia, Europe, and Latin America. It identifies five ways public private contracts can help countries reach their educational goals, namely: increasing access to education, especially for the marginalised; providing innovative means of finance, particularly important for post-conflict countries; developing a more differentiated business model; by bringing countries closer to the MDGs; and drawing on innovative examples and learning lessons from the experience of others. Ways to develop good practice in PPPs might include: improving policy and regulatory frameworks; capacity building of contracting agencies; strong design; and good flows of information and quality assurance.

Patrinos, H. A. and S. Sosale (eds.) (2007) Mobilising the private sector for public education: a view from the trenches, Washington, DC, World Bank. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This book focuses on PPPs in education, with empirical evidence drawn from studies in Latin America, the UK, and the USA. Governments are increasingly contracting out responsibility for education provision to private organisations, NGOs, and other public agencies. PPPs can help enhance the supply and the quality of educational provision. This volume brings together research on PPPs from different global contexts including charter schools in the USA, the role of a coffee organisation in education in rural Colombia, and case studies from elsewhere in Latin America.

Phillipson, B. (ed.) (2008) Low-cost private education. Impacts on achieving Universal Primary Education, London: Commonwealth Secretariat.

This research focuses on the increasing number of low-cost private providers of education in Africa and Asia. Many view these as a way of increasing enrolments and quality, especially in areas that public providers are not reaching. The study examines the impact of low-cost private schools on education for the poor; it looks at enrolment rates and aspects of quality as well as transition rates to secondary school; and it draws on empirical research from India, Nigeria, and Uganda. The book argues that private providers can play an important role in educational provision alongside public schools; however, governments need to regulate, supervise, and support private schools.

Rose, P. (2007a) NGO Provision of Basic Education: Alternative or Complementary Service Delivery to Support Access to the Excluded?, CREATE Pathways to Access, Brighton: University of Sussex. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This paper focuses on primary-school-aged children whose education is provided by NGOs that are funded by international agencies. In particular, it reviews alternative forms of service delivery that have adapted to the specific needs of hard-to-reach children. The paper reviews the literature on access via NGOs, the types of provision offered, and some of the perceived benefits of NGO-based provision. NGOs are increasingly seeing their provision as complementary to that of the state, with the overall goal of supporting children's transition into the state syste, rather than as a parallel alternative provider. The paper highlights the lack of systematic and critical research into educational access via NGOs, on areas such as, who is gaining access and to what. The paper highlights the importance of analysing the implications for NGO–government collaboration to ensure sustainability of educational access.

Rose, P. (2007b) Supporting Non-state Providers in Basic Education Service Delivery, CREATE Pathways to Access, Brighton, University of Sussex. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This monograph looks at the role of NSPs particularly in relation to underserved groups, who may be marginalised from mainstream schooling. It also looks at research that compares non-state to state providers of education in relation to quality, cost-effectiveness, choice, and accountability, and suggests that views that non-state provision is preferable are ill-founded. The way in which NSPs engage with the state and donors is examined in relation to contracting, policy dialogue, and regulation. The paper argues that relations between NSPs and the state are not straightforward as there is a wide range of different providers involved in service delivery. Better-off service providers tend to dominate engagement with government, with smaller-scale, informal providers often excluded from dialogue. In order to move towards EFA, the paper suggests that collaboration between NSPs and government be improved, and that governments should play a greater role in regulating NSPs.

Rose, P. (2008) Exploring relationships between non-state providers and the State in South Asia: Comparison of education cases, Non Governmental Public Action Programme, Birmingham: University of Birmingham. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This paper examines relations between NSPs of education and the state in South Asia, through case studies in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan. The NSPs in the study are non-profit organisations providing a variety of services to support the education of 'hard-to-reach' children. The NSPs have different roles, which shape their interactions with the state. For example, some are involved in direct non-state provision, others in indirect state provision and others support direct state provision. The paper argues there is no blueprint for NSP–state relations and relations vary according to the form of public action taken by the NSP and the approach they have to developing relations with government. Similarly government may choose to recognise NSP activities with different degrees of formality. The formality of the relationship influences the degree to which NSPs and the state face a collaborative or conflictual engagement – which in turn influences education service delivery.

Rose, P. (ed.) (2009) ‘Compare Special Issue: Non-state provision of education: evidence from Africa and Asia’, Compare 39(2).

This special issue includes ten articles on non-state provision of education. Contributors look at the role of NSPs in achieving EFA by comparing experiences of different forms of provision in a variety of geographical contexts, as well as by drawing on research from a range of methodological perspectives. Overall the articles highlight the important role NSPs play in certain types of education provision, but also recognise the need for the state to ensure that such provision is improved. Articles cover experiences in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa and focus on issues such as fee free schooling, the role of NSPs in EFA, low-cost private schools, and Public–Private Partnerships (PPPs) in education.

Srivastava, P. and G. Walford (eds.) (2007) Private Schooling in Less Economically Developed Countries: Asian and African Perspectives, Didcot: Symposium Books.

This edited volume collates research on the extent and nature of private schooling in economically developing countries in Asia and Africa. In particular it looks at the potential impact of private provision on the educational opportunities of economically and socially disadvantaged children, where low-cost private providers are increasingly stepping in to provide schooling for children whose parents cannot afford school fees, but do spend a significant proportion of their income on schooling. The research looks at the role of low-cost private providers in the achievement of EFA, equitable access, and educational quality. It also highlights some of the key issues surrounding the increase in private school providers, i.e. school regulation and recognition; and looks at the very poor, who are often unable to attend these schools.

Sutton, M. and R. Arnove (2004) Civil society or shadow state? State/NGO relations in education, Stamford, CT: Information Age Publishing.

NGOs have gained prominence in recent years, with increasing emphasis on the role they can play in service delivery, building social capital, and democratisation. Donor agencies have channelled funds through NGOs, as they are often perceived to be more efficient and accountable than the state. At the same time NGOs have become more prominent in international and national policy processes. This edited collection looks at relations between the international community, state, and non-state actors in education provision across the world. Chapters include papers on state–NGO relations through village empowerment and maternal language/literacy projects; basic education provision; provision of education for street children and children with autism. They explore experiences in Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and the Pacific region. The contributors highlight the complex nature of state/NGO relations and the need to retain an awareness of historic, cultural, and structural factors. The book provides insights into the shifting role of the state versus non-state actors, and argues that NGOs are taking on responsibilities previously seen as those of the state. In some cases more is demanded of NGOs and the private sector than they can provide.

Teamey, K. and C. McLoughlin (2009) Understanding the dynamics of relationships between government agencies and non-state providers of basic services: Key issues emerging from the literature, Non Governmental Public Action Programme, London: London School of Economics. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This literature review collates research on relations between government and NSPs of basic services, including education. It highlights key issues in government–NSP relations, examining types of organisations and individuals; contractual as well as informal relations; historical changes in relationships and incentives for relations. The authors caution against generalisation and simplification, highlighting the complexities of relationships with many potential variables. NSP–government relationships are fluid and changing, they have histories, as well as local, national, and global contexts. The relationships are determined by the nature of organisations and individuals within them, external networks, and the incentives organisations have to engage in these relations, the forms of interaction, and how the interactions operate in practice.

Tooley, J. and P. Dixon (2003) Private schools for the poor: a case study from India, Reading: CFBT. Available here (retrieved 5 April 2010).

This paper looks at how low-cost private schools might be a way to help achieve EFA for the poor, using case-study research from Hyderabad. Low-cost private schools are increasing in numbers, operating in low-income communities traditionally served by the state sector. Research often shows private providers providing better quality, more cost-effective, and more accountable services to local communities. The authors argue that these provide a valuable service to poor communities and a profit to school owners. Other schools were available, but families in the study made an active choice to send their children to low-cost private schools. Yet there are challenges - many schools are unregulated and established by payment of bribes to government officials. The research makes five recommendations: to develop/extend a private voucher scheme so that poor children can attend a private school of their parents’ choice; to explore the feasibility of a state voucher scheme; to set up a company to oversee school improvements and accreditation; to set up a loan company for schools to borrow money; and to encourage the liberalisation of the regulatory framework.

Tooley, J. and P. Dixon (2005) Private education is good for the poor: A study of private schools serving the poor in low-income countries, White Paper, Washington, DC: Cato Institute. Available here (retrieved 22 February 2010)

The research argues that low-cost private schools can and do play an important role in providing education to the poor. The authors draw on quantitative research from India, Ghana, Nigeria and Kenya, which looks at academic achievement in government and private primary and secondary schools. In the sample areas (low-income urban, peri-urban, and rural areas) the majority of school children were attending private schools. The research highlights private unaided schools having better pupil–-teacher ratios, higher teacher commitment, and sometimes better facilities than government schools. School achievement tests show higher performance in low-cost private rather than government schools, yet teachers cost less (between half and a quarter of salary costs). The authors call low-cost private schools a 'great’ but largely unnoticed ‘success story', particularly in educational statistics. They suggest the development of loans programmes to help infrastructural investment and the creation of targeted voucher schemes to help enrolments.
 

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