In English only
Volume 6
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The article examines the problems facing African scholars and publishers, in the context of rapid developments in information technology and a deepening economic gulf between industrialised and Third World countries. Many of these problems, and conventional responses to them from libraries, publishers, and donors, are themselves a legacy of colonial relations; the most significant of which is the deepening dependence on western forms of knowledge and systems for its validation. Questioning the terms `information-rich' and `information-poor', the author stresses the need for Africans to develop the means to generate, value, and disseminate their own forms of knowledge.
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The need for a comprehensive information service based at the rural level in Bangladesh is discussed, noting the demands of NGO activists who require reading materials, particularly in their own language, for updating their knowledge, developing skills, analysing social issues, and motivating communities. The establishment of the Community Development Library (CDL) in 1980 whose role is to cater to the information needs of development agencies and social workers, through an institution which would provide development workers with resource materials and up-to-date information on a variety of issues is discussed. The organization of the CDL is described, and additional services are noted: press clippings; current-awareness services; a reading circle; action research and publication; audio-visual programme; and development resource promotion. The CDL also maintains 30 regional, district, and local Rural Information Resource Centres (RIRCS). The impact and some restraints of the RIRCS are noted. Abstract supplied by kind permission of CABI.
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The author reports on the Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo (the Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo), working actively in Argentina to discover the whereabouts of the desaparacidos, the children who were abducted by the military regime of the 1970s to early `80s. Their achievements include tracing over 50 children, successfully lobbying for the creation of a genetic databank on the families of the disappeared, and campaigning for action from the government.
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The author researched women's experiences of domestic violence and abuse in Calcutta, India. She reports on their strategies for coping with and resisting this violence, noting that the majority of the women developed resistance strategies, and that in many cases these worked. A pragmatic approach is taken, since, the author argues, it is unhelpful to assume that the best course of action for these women would be to leave their partners. The women who were most successful in resisting violence were those who were least isolated; who had access to other family members, or other women through a variety of organisations.
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An unnecessary polarisation has arisen between `relief' and `development' work and agencies are looking to bridge the gap, moving towards an integrated response to disasters which promotes sustainable development. Effective rehabilitation may provide a way forward, and the author discusses this concept, arguing that development agencies will need to foster relevant capacities in recipients as well as shift their planning, programming, implementation and evaluation approaches, in order to enable rehabilitation to work as a strategy in its own right, rather than as a stop-gap between continuing relief and development work.
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Kishore Saint, one of Development in Practice's founding Editorial Advisers, shares his thoughts on the way forward for the journal as he prepares to stand down from his position.
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The European Commission (EC) and other OECD countries would like a foreign investment treaty (or `multilateral investment agreement') within the World Trade Organisation (WTO). This would allow foreign companies to establish themselves with 100 per cent equity in all sectors (except security) in any WTO country; and receive `national treatment' on a par with local firms. National policies favouring local enterprises or facilities would be deemed discriminatory, and thus illegal under WTO rules. The penalties for non-compliance with WTO agreements are extensive. This article explores the grave implications of such a treaty for developing countries, and suggests alternatives that are available to them.
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Agrarian reform or land reform has virtually disappeared from the international development agenda since the 1980s. However, many people's organisations (POs) and NGOs in Third World countries are attempting to restore it as a development priority and policy imperative. The Philippines provides an example of agrarian reform that is currently being implemented within a democratic political framework which, while not without problems, presents an opportunity for a meaningful change for small farmers and landless peasants. In 1989, PhilDhrra, a network of NGOs in the Philippines, initiated a tripartite mechanism and programme among POs, NGOs, and government to facilitate the land reform process, which is showing encouraging results in several provinces.
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This two-part article explores the experience of living and working for a poverty-focused NGO in a civil war whose roots lay in the chronically inequitable distribution of power and access to resources. Based on 12 years' work in Central America, principally with refugees from El Salvador, the article reflects on the demands and constraints placed on international aid workers in the context of counter-insurgency; and on the ways in which relationships with local organisations and NGOs are affected. Empowerment and participation are examined from the perspective of those who reject their role as war victims.
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The author discusses her involvement, as a member of the Indian Women's Movement (IWM), in campaigning for increased protection under Indian law for women, and children, from sexual assault of any kind. The law at present has large gaps in it, and is formulated with the joint aims of protecting `virginal' women and protecting men at risk from the false allegations of low caste, impoverished, sexually-aware women. The evolution of the current law is presented, with examples of injustices, suggested areas for future lobbying, and pleas to ensure that victims are not revictimised by lobbyists themselves. This article also appears in the Development in Practice Reader Development and Rights.
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The author examines the effect of forced evictions and homelessness on children, in the long and short-term, psychologically and physically. Housing, land, and legal rights fail to protect children, she argues, and poor people need greater access to legal advice on how evictions can be resisted. There is rarely coherent policy about the status of street children, resulting in their further marginalisation and criminalisation. Slums and squatter camps are symptomatic of urban development and acknowledging this is the first step towards providing the infrastructure necessary to prevent damaging millions of children and their families in sub-Saharan Africa.
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The insecurity of land tenure in Uganda has been a critical issue in the economic development of the country. The development of an equitable land distribution policy is discussed. Information is presented on: the historical background of land tenure systems (noting the difference in land tenure systems: Mailo, freehold, leasehold, the Busulu (ground rent) and Envujo (commodity rents) law, and the 1975 Land Decree); the work of the Technical Committee; and issues raised by the proposed reform (land as a technical question, over-riding economic considerations, avoidance of social issues, the sale of land, compensation, the plight of rural pastoralists, a ceiling on land acquisition, a uniform land tenure system, and the timing of implementation). It is concluded that the proposed land reform in Uganda does not promise to balance technical, economic, social, and political criteria. Abstract supplied by kind permission of CABI.
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The authors describe the extent of the trade in mainly rural Nepalese women, sold into prostitution and bonded labour in Asia and the Middle East, often by their families, because of poverty. The organisation Women Acting Together for Change (WATCH) works for and with these women, aiming to empower victims and to change the way women are perceived in Nepalese society and law. This article is freely available as a chapter in Development with Women.
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The development of an unionized work force in the north-east of Brazil is described. The area has seen considerable growth in the export markets for grapes and mangoes which provides significant employment; other areas of employment are in labour-intensive crops, for example tomatoes and onions. The paper discusses: some new union strategies, improvements for wage labourers, and some of the limited victories that have been achieved with the work of the NGO, Oxfam. It is argued that there are limits to this kind of development model given the low value of the wages earned by the workers. The conclusion proposes considerable networking amongst unions and NGOs with the aim of providing information that may allow them to define and implement new directions for development. Abstract supplied by kind permission of CABI. This article is freely available as a chapter in Development and Social Action.
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In English only
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Afghan NGOs have been a major provider of humanitarian aid throughout the Afghan conflict. They remained operational during this period by `dancing' with and between the various parties to the conflict, their survival contingent on their ability to build ad hoc patterns of alliance and Cupertino. This article explores the nature of `the dance' between NGOs, the warring parties, and the NGOs' constituencies. It asks whether `dancing with the prince' represents an accommodation with violence or is a necessary compromise which will ultimately contribute to resolving the conflict. It concludes by drawing out key lessons for donors who support indigenous NGOs operating in complex political emergencies. An updated version of this article is freely available as a chapter in Development NGOs and Civil Society.
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An analysis is presented of research carried out in 1995, focusing on programmes funded by an NGO, Oxfam, as the basis of a case study of the Ugandan health sector. The involvement of NGOs in service provision for the state in Uganda is discussed together with the changing trends in aid distribution and what they mean for NGOs, the state and for their relationship with each other. Sections consider whose responsibility it is to provide a viable health service, and the importance of NGO support for the health service in Uganda. Abstract supplied by kind permission of CABI. This article is freely available as a chapter in Development NGOs and Civil Society.
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In 1994, the UN Volunteers programme (UNV) and UN Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) collaborated on a research project, Volunteer Contributions to Social Integration at the Grassroots: the Urban or `Pavement Dimension'. The author describes how the researchers hope to contribute to understanding of how global forces erode community structures, including the way governments increasingly privatise public services, and highlights the challenges and potential rewards for communities which voluntarily pull together to change their circumstances.
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40 participants from 24 countries took part in this workshop, organised by the International NGO Training and Research Centre (INTRAC) in Oxford, UK. Much of the workshop was spent trying to reach agreement on what civil society means, and the degree to which it can be conceptually separated from the State, and reinforced by NGOs. Another concern was that Northern and Southern NGOs' understandings of civil society were often different; the Northern interpretation was accused of being donor-driven and neo-imperialist, and there were general concerns that less powerful groups could be assimilated by stronger organisations attempting to impose `togetherness' and `co-operation'.
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The Kebkabiya project was the first of Oxfam's operational development projects instigated during the 1980s to initiate a handover to community management. It therefore offers a possible model to other operational projects considering their eventual future. This article analyses the processes of handover into those affecting operational control of service delivery, management control, and the project's financial base. It argues that a handover, if it is to be successful and sustainable, must be treated as a complex set of activities requiring a long time framework, much like any other developmental process.
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There is growing interest in organisational and institutional development, or capacity-building, but little understanding of what these involve in practice. This article provides a case-study of a successful long-term programme of institutional development, which built the capacities of the Tibetan refugee community in development planning. The primary focus is on key features for adaptation by development practitioners. The authors also clarify some of the confusions in the debate on organisational and institutional development.
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New communication technologies may be a mixed blessing for tropical African states. They could foster development, by promoting health, education, agriculture, entertainment, business and tourism; and also enhance international trade and regional Cupertino. However, these technologies might accentuate the gap between the rich and poor, creating a society characterised by an information-rich elite and an information-poor underclass. In an age when information is power, this could devastate countries that are facing the problems of poverty, disease, hunger, and political instability. Ultimately, these technologies might also jeopardise the sovereignty, security, human rights and, consequently, the development of countries in tropical Africa.
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NGOs are using `civil society' to mean different things: the author argues that the wide definition means that any potential partner organisation becomes a civil-society organisation, and that consideration of the conditions that are central to a community organisation becoming a civil organisation may be useful in helping NGOs focus on the quality of the associations they choose. This article is freely available as a chapter in Development NGOs and Civil Society.
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An examination is presented of an NGO project in Zambia, focusing on its approach, its specific consequences for local participation, potential for sustainability and its ability to hold the government accountable for how its uses public resources. Sections focus on: channeling food aid; and food for work programmes. It is concluded that unless aid projects make it a priority to establish or reinforce mechanisms by which existing, locally available resources are mobilized and used effectively in resolving the problems of the poor, they cannot contribute to laying a basis for further development. This article also appears in the Development in Practice Reader [13]Development, NGOs, and Civil Society. Abstract supplied by kind permission of CABI. This article is freely available as a chapter in Development NGOs and Civil Society.
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A description is presented of the development of NGOs in Brazil from small grassroots movements into over a 1000 specialized and consolidated organizations in 1996. NGOs generally operate through one or more of six inter-related activities: applied research; grassroots organizations; training and technical assistance; information sharing; public policy advocacy; and networking. The important role they play in promoting debate on public policy at the grassroots level is highlighted. The growth of the Anti-Poverty Campaign started in 1993 through the efforts of several leading NGOs is an illustration of the influential role NGOs now hold in Brazilian society. Abstract supplied by kind permission of CABI.
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An analysis is presented of the expansion of the NGO, the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP) in Gujarat, India following the approval of a #10 million grant for rural development from the European Union. The challenge facing the NGO is to scale up the kind of community based development which it has been successful at to a size that has an impact on a larger number of people. The grassroots approach adopted by the AKRSP is examined and the need to maintain this approach despite the increase in programme size highlighted and the problems this creates are outlined. Abstract supplied by kind permission of CABI.
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The authors report on a neighbourhood-based sanitation service set up in Dar es Salaam using appropriate technology for emptying pit latrines; the Manual Pit Latrine Emptying Technology (MAPET) project. The participatory development process and use of technology fitting the localised scale of the project contributed to its success, while notable lessons learned include the need for the cooperation of a local agency (whether an NGO or local government) in purchasing and replacing equipment.
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The author briefly discusses the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, negotiated and adopted by 189 countries at the Fourth World Conference on Women in September 1995, and how it promises that governments will take responsibility for its implementation, while recognising the roles NGOs have to play.
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In English only
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This article challenges the recent uncritical enthusiasm for the potential of micro-finance institutions to reduce poverty. It is argued that, although understanding about how to design anti-poverty financial intermediation has improved, the current campaign to increase resource allocation in this sector may undermine the very sustainability that is being sought. Further, studies of the impact of micro-enterprise credit suggest that it is not necessarily beneficial to very poor people. Interventions in the provision of financial services should not be made without locally specific analysis of the functions of existing savings and credit facilities. An emphasis on scale acts as a disincentive to such analysis, and increases the risk of the re-emergence of a `blueprint' approach to anti-poverty action.
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Mala milk is a cultured dairy beverage of consistent quality that can keep for four days without refrigeration, and up to three weeks with refrigeration. It offers important nutritional benefits for rural consumers, can be produced in simple facilities with a capacity of 500 litres per day or more, and is less complicated than cheesemaking. The production of mala milk in Kenya is discussed, and the equity trust approach is described. An innovative approach to the provision of financing, technical and managerial assistance proved successful for the establishment of small, community-owned mala milk plants in Kenya. Implemented by Techno-Serve-Kenya, this activity received core financial and technical assistance from Appropriate Technology International and enterprise finance from several other donors. The benefits of operating mala milk production in this way are noted. Abstract supplied by kind permission of CABI.
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The author comments on research into poor urban women's survival strategies done in Zambia in 1994, funded by the Natural Resources Department of the British government's Overseas Development Administration. Chilimba is an informal savings and credit system, one variation of the ROSCAs (Rotating Savings and Credit Associations) successfully in use throughout Africa and elsewhere. The author discusses the potential for intervention designed to enable those with no capital or regular income to participate, and to increase and widen the benefits gained from participation.
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As markets are increasingly deregulated and government control over public service provision loosens, so the importance of effective urban management is growing. No longer directly providing urban services, governments should now, the author argues, perform an `enabling' role, planning and co-ordinating provision. Werna reports on case studies from Bangladesh, Kenya and Brazil, and discusses the common problems faced in these very different urban environments and how local government authorities can work to close the growing gulf between service management and provision.
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In Bangladesh, government organisations and non-governmental organisations are implementing programmes and energy-saving projects in an effort to save the environment. This article examines such programmes in the specific area of improved stove technology. It shows that inadequate assessment of the environment by environmentalists and development practitioners has led them to select inappropriate technology that has resulted in the failure to incorporate women in the energy-saving movement. It identifies the reasons behind women's rejection of a technology that was imposed rather than based on an appreciation of their distinct problems, culture, and ecology.
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Rehabilitation involves re-establishing livelihood security among the poorest households in order to reduce vulnerability to future disasters, re-start the local economy in a sustainable fashion, and avoid dependency. This article discusses experiences of post-war rehabilitation in Mozambique and suggests that, although many households rapidly re-started crop production, they remain vulnerable because they have not been able to rebuild reserves. The author cautions against over-rapid withdrawal from relief programmes, and suggests that distributing cash and allowing households to buy what they need most is sometimes more appropriate than distributing food, seeds, tools, and selected household goods.
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The policies of the apartheid regime prematurely destroyed the peasantry in South Africa, leaving millions of people without land or jobs. The abrogation of racial laws that reserved 87 per cent of the land for whites makes it possible to launch policies addressing the needs of black farmers. Efforts to promote the emergence of black commercial farmers risk worsening conditions for much of the rural population. While it cannot neglect commercial agriculture and food security, South Africa also needs to revive peasant agriculture, which can play a role similar to that of the informal sector in urban areas.
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The author expands on the four ingredients `feminist-flavoured gender-sensitive development' should have: Strategic needs of women; Agenda-setting direction to mainstreaming; Flexibility; and Empowerment philosophy (`SAFE').
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The paper defines financial sustainability; why financial sustainability is a valid objective; how it can be measured; and what can be done to improve levels of financial sustainability. The discussion is situated within the context of NGOs managed credit schemes, operating in developing countries. The following issues are considered: importance of savings; gender; appropriate loan size; realistic interest rates; repayment periods and intervals; security and collateral; group loans versus group businesses; separation of finance from other support; systems; measurement; incentives; and scale. Abstract supplied by kind permission of CABI.
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The indigenous informal credit market within Sri Lanka encompasses a wide range of financial arrangements, including: direct money-lending (professional and semi-professional money-lenders); indirect money-lending (trade financing, commission agencies, and credit related to mortgages on crops); and voluntary credit groups (single purpose and multi-purpose credit assistance and cheetu/ROSCAs). The paper focuses on: the Hatton National Bank; 'barefoot banking'; the extension of irrigation; and, the role of NGOs. Aspects are listed in which outside agencies could assist the banking systems in reaching the small- and micro-enterprise sector: preferential interest rates; risk sharing; awareness of banking; identifying potential entrepreneurs; entrepreneur development; monitoring; encouraging savings habits; and group lending. Abstract supplied by kind permission of CABI.
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A case study is presented of the Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA) in Gujarat, India, which has taken on responsibility for providing marketing support to the Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas groups in the Banaskantha district. It is the first time a voluntary organisation has been involved directly in business activities in an open market environment. A brief introduction of the SEWA experiment is presented, followed by a discussion of the group process in marketing; links with external agencies are presented, and some lessons are noted. Abstract supplied by kind permission of CABI.
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The authors discuss the feelings, status, and working conditions of women in factories making garments for export. Many legal requirements under the 1965 Factory Act (child care facilities, maternity leave, length of working hours, holiday entitlement) are rarely observed, workers are often unaware of their legal rights, and factory owners argue that such provisions would involve expenses which would nullify Bangladesh's low-wage advantage over other exporters.
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In English only
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Participation must be seen as political. There are always tensions underlying issues about who is involved, how and on whose terms. While participation has the potential to challenge patterns of dominance, it may also be the means through which existing power relations are entrenched and reproduced. The arenas in which people perceive their interests and judge whether they can express them are not neutral. Participation may take place for a whole range of unfree reasons. It is important to see participation as a dynamic process, and to understand that its own form and function can become a focus for struggle. This article is freely available as a chapter in Development NGOs and Civil Society.
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The paper argues that education should be a crucial part of relief operations which respond to emergencies in developing countries. In practice, however, educational needs in emergencies have been neglected in competition with the demand for more conventional relief. An example from southern Sudan demonstrates how the need for education can be addressed in an emergency. Indigenous initiatives for the re-establishment and improvement of educational provision have been supported by a group of agencies working as part of the emergency operation. A flexible system of teacher education is the focus of a programme which invests in people rather than buildings. It emphasizes the crucial importance of the involvement of local communities, on whom the success of rural primary school education depends. The scheme has also recognized the importance of schools for conveying information and stimulating discussion on topics such as health, psycho-social needs, and girls' education, and integrating these cross-cutting issues into teacher education. This article also appears in the Development in Practice Reader Development in States of War. Abstract supplied by kind permission of CABI.
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Academic urban development training programs tend to either train in town planning, where the focus is on the production of plans, or in urban studies, where the focus is on the development of urban areas; there is a need, the author argues, for training that produces `working planners' with knowledge of both. He advocates `for-the-job training', in which trainees use the real problems they face in their working environment as study material, allowing trainees to produce useful outputs while being trained, and ensuring the relevance of training.
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Against a background of reduced government funding of African universities, the International African Institute in London co-ordinated a study in 1995 to evaluate university libraries, in terms of their sustainability, now that many survive on (usually short-term) funding from donors. Through structured interviews and questionnaires, the researchers discovered libraries are becoming marginalised and decentralised within universities, and many are not providing the most basic services for students and staff.
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Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) emerged in the context of working with rural communities in developing countries. But the principles of participation and of action-oriented research are equally valid for development work in the urban sector, and in industrialised countries. This article describes the use of participatory appraisal techniques in disadvantaged communities in the UK, in the fields of health and social welfare. Drawing on a case-study of her work, the author looks at the practical, organisational, and political difficulties inherent in bringing together multi-agency professionals and public-sector workers, and members of local communities, and in developing a functional consensus between them. This article also appears in the Development in Practice Reader Development for Health.
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This article reviews the extent to which the educational system has acknowledged the importance to women of the informal sector of the economy, and the extent to which it has sought to prepare them for employment or self-employment within it. It assesses the record of both formal and non-formal education in providing women with the necessary skills to compete with men for employment, and concludes that both have generally failed to assist women to obtain skilled, well paid, and secure jobs, leaving them in overwhelming numbers in subsistence-level activities in the informal sector. Within the non-formal approach to education, the article examines training in income-generating projects, which are a major conduit for assistance to poor women in developing countries. Some recommendations for improved strategies of education and training provision are presented. This article is freely available as a chapter in Development with Women.
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Although well placed to render assistance to refugees, indigenous NGOs usually play only a marginal role, compared with the Northern NGOs which dominate most humanitarian aid programmes. The unbalanced power relations between Northern agencies and donors and Southern NGOs in the delivery of refugee assistance are reviewed. Using data from the assistance programmes for Mozambican refugees in Malawi and Zimbabwe, the strategies and conditions by which some indigenous NGOs successfully challenged this prevailing situation are examined. Factors considered to be significant are institution building; diversifying the donor base; project design and development; and the skills and expertise of field directors. The broader applicability of these experiences is considered.
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The paper notes that there are substantial differences between women's studies/women in development and gender studies/gender and development. It suggests that the differences between women in development, and gender and development is such that the focus changes from one of equity to one of efficiency. Within gender and development, there are a number of different loci: gender studies (the conceptual part of the process, during which models are developed and refined through research, debate and networking); gender training (a technical part of the process which involves passing on practical skills for implementing gender-sensitive policy, planning, and training in specific circumstances); and gender planning (the practical application of the skills that have been acquired through gender studies and gender training). The paper examines some of the specific problems encountered in each of these areas, the need to develop effective courses within Africa, the scope of training currently available and the impact of gender studies and gender training as a positive change in the lives of marginalised groups of women. Abstract supplied by kind permission of CABI.
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The Community Development Resource Association (CDRA) is a non-profit NGO, established in 1987 to build the capacity of organizations engaged in development and social transformation in South Africa and sub-Saharan Africa. It aims to do this by providing organizational development (OD) consultancy services, offering OD training and programmes, and through the programme, Action Learning: Education for Development. Since inception, the NGO has worked with 164 client organizations in South Africa, Lesotho, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Angola, and Tanzania. Although consultancy services and appropriate development interventions are helpful in building organizational capacity, the NGO perceives fieldwork as the most important aspect of development. The paper discusses the need for field work, within the needs of South Africa, and the importance of promoting good field work including some of the reasons why good field work is not attained. It also considers the qualities found in good field workers, using consultants appropriately, and the necessity to prioritize field work. Abstract supplied by kind permission of CABI.
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Recent years have seen development NGOs making significant efforts to show how they are performing, a trend impelled by three factors: stricter requirements attached to official aid, which is a fast-growing proportion of NGO funds; doubts about NGOs claims to be more effective than governments; post-Cold War shifts in the role of NGOs, which increase their own needs to know what is being achieved, in order to manage the processes of organisational reorientation and transformation. Almost without exception, NGOs are finding it very difficult to come up with sound, cost-effective methods to show the results of their development activities, or even to demonstrate their effectiveness as organizations. These difficulties arise from both key features of the aid system, and from the nature of 'non-profits'. The paper summarizes the difficulties in each of these two areas, and considers solutions that are emerging from recent experience. A concluding section explores the link between accountability and performance, and speculates on the range of approaches which NGOs might use in the future to prove that they are valuable and effective agents of development. Abstract supplied by kind permission of CABI.
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The World Bank claims to have become the defender of women's rights, urging national governments to 'invest more in women in order to reduce gender inequality and boost economic development'. Through its Women in Development Programme (WID), adopted throughout the developing world, the Bank defines the ground rules on gender policy. A market oriented approach is prescribed, with a monetary value attached to gender equality: women's programmes are to be framed in relation to the opportunity cost and efficiency of women's rights. The Bank determines the concepts, methodological categories, and database for analysing gender issues. The paper critically analyses the World Bank's approach to women and gender issues, and concludes that the neo-liberal gender perspective (under the trusteeship of international donors, such as the World Bank and IMF) is largely intent upon creating divisions within national societies, and demobilising the struggle of women and men against the macroeconomic model. Abstract supplied by kind permission of CABI.
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The UK Development Studies Association is a voluntary body of academics and practitioners concerned with economic and social development. The author highlights the `added value' of academics and practitioners sharing their expertise, and discusses the climate of mutual respect in which Cupertino can be most productive.
