Volume 9

  • In English only
  • The authors explore the deleterious effects of economic globalisation on people in the USA, and explain the rise of poor people's organisations as a response to these conditions. They look at the impact of economic changes in terms of public policy and argue that the global economy is preventing a growing number of people from being able to meet their basic needs, by limiting or eliminating living-wage jobs as well as welfare programmes. However, poor people in the USA are organising to end poverty, and the Kensington Welfare Rights Union is given as a case study. Finally, the authors discuss the challenges faced by social workers and how they can be most effective in the face of a dying welfare state alongside growing exploitation and exclusion of the poor.
  • The author describes incentives used by governments to attract foreign investment and create export processing zones (EPZs), also known as special economic or free trade zones. The low cost of labour, mostly provided by women, is one of these incentives. Making special reference to Jamaica, Belize, and Barbados, the author discusses the impact of EPZs on the Caribbean, and the challenges facing small countries in the face of monopoly agreements.
  • The author argues, using the example of microfinance institutions, that it is essential to build genuinely solid and alternative institutions if development is to take its direction from the poor and vulnerable. He sets out his view of the characteristics such institutions would have, and the vulnerabilities currently seen in microfinance institutions.
  • In this personal Viewpoint, the author argues that globalisation has led to increased inequity in health and healthcare provision, just as it aggravates social inequity in general. He highlights the growing sacrifice of equity to efficiency, and the complicity of `elite' countries and companies in the deterioration of social conditions. Medical knowledge is being traded as a for-profit commodity, and the benefits of globalisation and liberalisation are bypassing poorer countries because of the concern for profit.
  • With reference to a recent visit to Dhaka, Bangladesh, the author gives his personal view on the spread of IT technology that accompanies globalisation. He comments particularly on the communication potential of the Internet and email, and the tendency of the technology to aggravate existing inequalities.
  • Cyberfeminists share the belief that women should `take control of and appropriate the use of cybertechnologies in an attempt to empower ourselves.' The author argues that the demystification of technology is necessary, but not sufficient, for empowerment (or re-empowerment, a term she prefers) since mainstream cyberfeminism fails to `address the complexities of the lived contexts of women in the South.'
  • The author argues that Northern NGOs are increasingly moulding themselves in the image of, and accepting the impetus of governments to become, a delivery service for global welfare. Commins believes that NGOs can, and should, avoid this by reassessing themselves on a variety of levels, including where they fit in complex emergency situations and how the new vocal presence of Southern NGOs presents a challenge for their role. This article is freely available as a chapter in Development NGOs and Civil Society.
  • This international NGO conference was held in Birmingham, England, in January 1999, to explore `the opportunities for civic action that global trends are creating for NGOs.' Discussions around NGOs and aid, capacity building, civil society, social capital, complex political emergencies, community development, advocacy, gender and microfinance took place, and the author highlights the most interesting points from each of these sessions.
  • There has been growing concern in Bangladesh that access to higher education is restricted to high-income families. Here, the author reports on the early findings of research into the socio-economic backgrounds of students at Bangladesh's major universities. These findings indicate that the average student is from an affluent, probably land-owning, family. The results are worrying since they suggest that doing well in the education system prior to university is not enough to ensure one has access to higher education.
  • In the context of inequity which makes achieving `health for all' extremely difficult, Where Women Have No Doctor attempts to give access to health information to those who lack it. The authors applaud the book, and stress that there is great need for this information, despite criticism from the book's reviewer in Development in Practice 8(3).
  • Full-text sample article FREE from Taylor & Francis. Recent initiatives from the OECD, the World Bank, and others on the subject of corruption have received widespread attention. However, the author argues that the incidence of corruption is closely connected with contracting-out, concessions, and privatisation, where multinationals based in OECD countries stand to gain profitable business. The encouragement of privatisation by the World Bank, and the economic benefit to OECD multinationals from this business, mean that action against corruption needs to involve effective sanctions by developing countries against multinationals which engage in corrupt practices; greater political transparency to remove the secrecy under which corruption flourishes; and resistance to the uncritical extension of privatisation. This article looks at empirical evidence on this subject.
  • This paper looks at the nature and extent of privatisation around the world, including an analysis of the bodies or interests which promote this `panacea' policy. It identifies a number of responses which public sector trade unions have made to such policies, especially where these have been ideologically driven. It offers some examples of ways in which trade unions have developed their own models/proposals for modernisation of public services and shows how these have been both challenges and benefits to unions and service recipients. It looks at how agencies such as the World Bank have responded to these initiatives.
  • As the agonising over `what next' for Kosovo and Serbia continues, Eastern Slavonia offers a transition experience and timescale from which we may learn. Each case is specific in historical and political terms, and in the nature of international intervention. But questions of transition and minority rights are inherent across the region. Though Eastern Slavonia was one of the areas of former Yugoslavia that saw some of the fiercest fighting in the 1991 Serb-Croat war, few international aid agencies now remain. The 1995 Dayton Agreement provided for a one-year transition period for its re-incorporation into Croatia, under the auspices of a special UN mission (UNTAES). Based on extensive fieldwork, this article details the constraints on the UN's input into integrated social and civil structures, and describes the Kafkaesque welter of legal and bureaucratic obstacles as well as economic and other forms of discrimination that now face minority groups living in, or returning to, Croatia. Without a firm government commitment to full equality and fair treatment of all citizens, the pattern of violent `ethnic cleansing' may yet repeat itself.
  • The author differentiates between globalism, an ideology, and globalisation, a process that affects us all. He compares globalism and nationalism, considering the positive, negative, and similar, aspects of each, using examples from Eastern Europe where a struggle is taking place between the two, interdependent, ideologies. He advocates 'the constant presence of both to avoid the hegemony of either'. This article is freely available as a chapter in Development and Culture.
  • The author, the former president of Tanzania, answers this question resoundingly in the negative, arguing that while universal social principles may be possible, the inequity of wealth alone between countries means that social standards cannot currently be universally applied and adhered to. He goes on to argue that the equality of sovereign nations should be the basis for international economic, social, and political relations.
  • Describing the way globalisation has affected India over the last decade, the author considers the impact of these changes on women, in the main areas of `development' due to globalisation: commercialisation, capitalisation, foreign trade orientation, and financialisation and industrial restructuring. She develops the point that the `skewed income and wealth' structure in India, and the gender discrimination suffered by women, has not altered in the face of the changes brought by globalisation: women continue to lose out, and are losing out more severely than before.
  • A fundamental question to be decided at the November/December 1999 World Trade Organisation (WTO) ministerial meeting is whether to support or resist a new round of trade negotiations. The author argues that while many developing countries, and development NGOs, are right to feel that the earlier Uruguay round produced results skewed in favour of developed countries, there is nothing to be gained from resisting a new round: rather, developing countries should signal their willingness to get involved, but only if certain conditions are met. `[C]onstructive, but critical, support' is the only way to realise benefits and avoid further marginalisation.
  • Since the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was agreed, thousands of maquiladoras (assembly plants) have sprung up along the Mexican side of the Mexico/US border. Around a million workers are subject to violations of their human, labour, and health rights, the author argues, and this is a by-product of `free trade'. Abell advocates worker organising, appropriate training and access to information, and international solidarity, in order to avoid such abuses here and in the growing number of export processing zones (EPZs) around the world.
  • In English only
  • Full-text sample article FREE from Taylor & Francis. While global problems of poverty, inequality, and social upheaval are on the increase, the language used by development agencies and development experts sounds increasingly radical and idealistic. New socio-political conditions have been borrowed from real contexts in the South, only to be re-imposed on Southern `partners'. Notions like empowerment, participation, and governance are paradoxically enforced through top-down, external intervention. Hans Christian Andersen's parable of the Emperor's new clothes highlights the illusory nature of this re-packaging of development policies in the 1990s. One major difficulty is that micro- and meso-level socio-political conditionalities remain subordinated to macro-level economic liberalisation.
  • KwaZulu-Natal has the highest HIV infection rate in South Africa. The authors here report on a workshop using a participatory approach to train doctors, nurses and Environmental Health Officers from the region. The methodology, an adaptation of SARAR techniques, successfully provided an open forum for discussion, and, the authors feel, could help in developing household coping strategies and highlighting ways health care professionals can provide support at a community level.

  • The author, founder and Chairman of WorldSpace Corporation, describes the creation of the WorldSpace Foundation to promulgate access to information in the developing world. WorldSpace has launched a digital radio service, and has gained licences to broadcast in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Middle East, with the aim of closing the gap between rich and poor countries' access to information. He argues that such access is a sufficient condition for development.
  • Many NGO financial institutions and co-operatives are, arguably, incorporating the rules and norms of banking which, as `alternative' institutions, they sought to avoid. Here, the author uses CARUNA (the National Savings and Credit Co-operative `Caja Rural', in Nicaragua) as a case study through which to discuss what makes a truly alternative financial institution, with a gender focus. These institutions should recognise the value of promoting `innovative services that support social reproduction and food security activities, and promote participation by and accountability to communities.'
  • The author gives personal feedback on the Practical Note `How to pre-evaluate credit projects in ten minutes' (Hank Moll, Development in Practice 7(3)). She argues that it is difficult to give yes or no answers to the three checklist questions Hank Moll proposed, and that it might be disadvantageous to do so without fully understanding the underlying issues.
  • The author gives personal feedback on a review of this publication (Development in Practice 8(3)). She argues that the reviewers' criticisms in respect to the book's treatment of abortion and intra-uterine contraceptive devices, and it's failure to consider cultural and religious sensitivities, were unsubstantiated or incorrect.
  • The authors respond to some of the criticisms of Where Women Have No Doctor (Development in Practice 8(3)). They argue that, far from it being dangerous to give medical information to low-literacy, untrained people, the reverse, i.e. no information at all, can lead to more damaging attempts at health care.
  • By the 1990s, innovative ideas such as Sustainable Human Development (SHD) and People-Centred Development (PCD) had begun to shift the development discourse beyond economistic perspectives and the ideological (market versus state) debates of earlier days. This article describes how, despite their promise and the genuine efforts of international development agencies such as UNDP and ActionAid to put SHD/PCD ideas into practice, the conceptual deficiencies of the SHD/PCD paradigm, and internal organisational interests within the two agencies, have gradually displaced the agenda's core components. This article is freely available as a chapter in Development NGOs and Civil Society.
  • This paper examines the role of ideology in underpinning the operations of major development movements. As a confessional NGO, World Vision presents a useful case study; and this article examines the influence on this NGO of the interaction between ideology and wider development trends. It is argued that from roots in a specific cultural expression of Christianity - which enabled a highly focused and homogeneous ethos - World Vision's ideology has been transformed by growth and diversification into a fusion of mainstream Christianity and the pursuit of the concept of partnership; a process which underlines the role of development and geo-political forces constantly to challenge NGOs' self-image and strategic directions.
  • Full-text sample article FREE from Taylor & Francis. Microfinance programmes are increasingly popular in Bangladesh, and are especially renowned for the excellent repayment performance of women borrowers. This article examines the loan use pattern of women involved in wage employment and the benefits they gain from such loans. It also explores the effects of wage employment on gender relations. Women wage earners are found to value paid work more than they value credit. It is thus argued that more employment opportunities should be created for women as these would help to promote economic and social empowerment.
  • A historical study of migratory patterns in central Mexico shows that rural communities have seen shifts in population ratios as well as in the type of activities and responsibilities undertaken by men and women. This has also affected women's use of livestock, particularly the donkey. In this case study from the State of Mexico, the use of donkeys is analysed using PRA methodology. The donkey was found to be appropriate to needs of women and men, but is unlikely to be locally accepted for productive activities such as cultivation or breeding, as it is viewed as an animal reserved for household (reproductive) activities.
  • In 1997, the International Council of Voluntary Agencies (ICVA), which was formed in 1962, came close to being dissolved. The author provides a personal viewpoint on the way that the ICVA moved towards this point: highlighting organisational, managerial, financial, and structural errors of judgement. The ICVA remains in existence, but the author argues that while it continues to act as a promotional network encompassing NGOs with differing agendas and resource bases, it will lack `a genuine basis for a common agenda', concerning itself more with individual members' institutional security than with its emancipatory remit.
  • Using their personal experiences of the East Africa office of a small international NGO, the authors discuss the difficulties faced by NGOs attempting to work in partnership with governments and the private sector. NGOs' comparative lack of resources constitutes an immediate barrier to mutually beneficial partnerships, as does their inability and/or unwillingness to shoulder inherent risks. The authors argue that NGOs can learn from and contribute to these partnerships - for example in their supposed grassroots orientation and representation of the marginalised in society - but should be aware that unless they have input into the design of projects NGOs become no more than contracted service providers.
  • Based on her own experience as part of a Primary Health Care (PHC) community development project in Angola, the author assesses the way the project was set up, identifying problems and potential solutions. Greatly concerned with ensuring local participation in and ownership of new health clinics, the author dwells on the dynamics of relations between local clinic nurses, their trainers, and the community using the new services.
  • The author describes AEAZ's role in sensitising rural voters, so often marginalised and voiceless, with a series of civic awareness campaigns organised throughout Zambia in the run-up to elections in November 1996. The campaigns made clear the roles of MPs and their accountability to the electorate, as well as the notions of participation, self-determination, and democracy in a newly pluralist political system, for example. Difficulties with language and funding were encountered, but the campaigns were successful, as the Elections saw a rise in the number of voters, and subsequent questioning and holding to account of elected representatives.
  • In English only
  • The author offers a definition of what a civil society should be, drawing on the vast outpouring both of democratic activities within the Third World, as well as the emergence of those forces that inhibit or thwart the full realisation of civil society. He argues that the diversity of such activities are indicative not just of the potential of civil society but also, and more importantly, of the lessons that they teach us on the limits of representative democracy, on the adverse implications of the current patterns of development, and on the responsibility of citizens in contemporary society - lessons that are fundamental to the building of a democratic and just polity and a humane society. This article is freely available as a chapter in Development and Social Action.
  • Describing two models for the development of informal women's groups in Orissa and Kerala, India, the author discusses how it is possible to avoid the `top-down management' and bureaucracy that often contribute to the failure of other schemes. Informal self-help groups in rural areas serve to empower women, and provide a basis for the provision of credit and other support for various production and income-generation activities.
  • Civil violence affects people as individuals, small groups (for example families), communities and society as a whole. Attempts to help the victims of violence, displacement, and trauma, then, must address each of these strata. The author draws on his experience as former Director of the KwaZulu-Natal Programme for Survivors of Violence, in South Africa, to illustrate this.
  • The author gives an account of a partnership between a UK-based NGO and the Zambian government, designed to encourage `smallholder farmers to form `cattle clubs' [to] operate and manage community cattle-spraying points on a full cost-recovery basis'. The project's success has been tempered by changes in the external environment and the perceptions of the farmers, and the inability of the government to continue to allocate enough resources to it. The author offers practical lessons to be learned from these difficulties.
  • The authors report on this workshop, held at the Flood Hazard Research Centre at Middlesex University, which brought together participants experienced in each of these three fields to share their knowledge and enrich each other's understanding. There was debate on the social factors which make communities vulnerable to hazards, including consideration of human rights, environmental sustainability, and the extent of our definition of vulnerability, as well as how `globalisation' can either enhance or threaten the ability of groups to cope with hazards.
  • This paper examines the potential for participatory rural appraisal techniques to contribute positively to community development and empowerment in a deprived rural community in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. A series of participatory workshops was undertaken in which a number of innovative techniques were used to identify people--environment relationships and, in particular, the community perception of the value and problems relating to the river and riparian zone. The workshops led to the community taking positive action to address problems identified. The study indicates the value and role of participatory research among disempowered communities in rural Africa.
  • Major conceptual advances in thinking about gender relations suggest the need to reassess conventional gender analyses within the context of development interventions. Evidence from development practice supports the conviction that targeting can be undermined by processes of gendered bargaining around project interventions. Academic research points to key problems and potential methods for looking at how gender relations change, that might be adapted to project contexts. Existing gender planning frameworks focus on shifts in gender relations but need also to address the process whereby gender relations are renegotiated if they are to inform better planning, monitoring, and evaluation.
  • This paper questions the appropriateness of some of the 'help' that has been given in mental health in 'developing' countries, particularly Africa, and examines some of the complex ideological issues underlying different cultural understandings of the aetiology and treatment of mental illness. Some personal experiences, illustrating examples of the imposition of culturally inappropriate ideology in the teaching of psychiatry, are described. In conclusion, some principles of good practice are suggested which could form the basis of a synthesis between cultures, and maximise the possibility of Western aid in the field of mental distress being more culturally appropriate. This article is freely available as a chapter in Development and Culture.
  • The paper argues that the increase in official development assistance to South Africa following its transition to majority rule was largely at the expense of other countries in the region. While this refocusing of aid has been aimed at disadvantaged black groups, it will also reinforce the regional dominance of the South African economy. Aid to Botswana, Lesotho, and Namibia has also become far more concentrated on human resource investment than on, for example, assistance for industrial development. It is argued that this too will create a skill base which will benefit South African business expansion and which, when placed in the context of liberalised trade regimes, will tend favour those already well placed in market terms who will often be white, male, and South African. Only a properly coordinated gender- and poverty-sensitive regional aid programme will help to counterbalance the polarisation in favour of established South African business interests that seems the likely consequence of present policies.
  • Developing countries with large nomadic populations have found it difficult to cater for itinerant people in their healthcare strategies. Some have tried to settle nomads, others to bring in health workers from outside the nomadic community, both costly and ineffective intervention measures. The author advocates a strategy which seeks to build on the traditional healers' and birth attendants' skills present in nomadic communities, to encourage self-care as far as sensibly possible, and to take account of `community ecology, the definition of an epidemiological profile...and group identity' when planning health services.
  • With specific reference to the case of granite mining in the Mutoko District in Zimbabwe, the author argues that while the state continues to hold rights to communal land, and freehold tenure is prohibited, Zimbabweans are being denied rights: in this case, a say in, and compensation for, damage to `their' land caused by mining. The author compares the current injustice to the `inequitable bias' with which tenure was distributed in the 1950s.
  • When Hurricane Mitch hit South America in November 1998, it most harshly affected Honduras and Nicaragua, and most of those affected were already living in extreme poverty. The author highlights the connection between the extent of the damage from this `natural disaster' and deforestation and bad land management practices, which greatly increased the impact of Mitch in these countries. He advocates a rebuilding strategy for the countries, which reconstructs the economies more equitably rather than reinforcing the socio-economic and political orders that perpetuate the violation of human rights. He makes specific reference to the need to cancel debt repayments.
  • The author wrote this open letter to her friends in the immediate aftermath of Hurricane Mitch, from the capital of Honduras, Tegucigalpa. She describes the devastation, how nearby countries have sent assistance, and her fears for the future.
  • In English only
  • In a previous paper the author gave two views of development management. One was management in the context of development as historical change. The other was the management of deliberate efforts at progress, of development tasks. This paper adds a third: a style of management with a development orientation, that is, an orientation towards progressive change. It is argued that this third view allows for a normative definition of development management. Thus a distinctive notion of what is good development management is that it should consistently promote the values of development at all levels, even if this is not the most straightforward way of getting particular development tasks done successfully.
  • This paper, based on a review of SIDA's funding of NGOs in Bangladesh, explores the changing relationships between bilateral donors, Northern NGOs (NNGOs), and Southern NGOs (SNGOs). It compares direct and indirect funding routes between donors and SNGOs. Most SIDA funding of SNGOs was previously undertaken through Swedish NGOs. As SNGO competence and capacity has increased through their own efforts at professionalisation, through wider recognition and support from government, and by the provision of `capacity building' partnerships with NNGOs, these Southern organisations have taken up positions within the burgeoning `third sectors' of aid-recipient countries alongside the governmental and business sectors. SIDA has increasingly funded SNGOs directly through its Dhaka office. The paper sets out to address two main themes in the context of Swedish aid to NGOs in Bangladesh. Firstly, as bilateral donors provide an increasing proportion of their resources to NGOs, how can sound and responsible funding relationships based on mutual trust be built between bilateral donors and NGOs? Secondly, how can NNGOs work usefully in contexts where the number and capacity of local SNGOs has expanded significantly?
  • The paper presents a potentially effective empowerment strategy for women, using Nigeria as a case study. The strategy evolves from an evaluation of recent empowerment strategies in Nigeria, empowerment concepts, and Karl's (1995) scheme of empowerment. The author argues that the empowerment of women (understood as enhancing their capacity to influence and participate in making decisions which directly or indirectly influence their lives) is the key issue in protecting women's interests. She argues that (a) the concept of empowerment implicit in an empowerment strategy predetermines its effectiveness; (b) endogenous empowerment is likely to be more effective than exogenous empowerment because it locks into real needs, as revealed by a prior assessment; and (c) a dynamic conception of empowerment is more appropriate than a static one because it leads to endogenous empowerment strategies. The author recommends a three-pronged strategy consisting of awareness-building, skills and capacity development, and political action within a framework of endogenous empowerment.
  • What does organisational decentralisation mean? What types of decentralisation can NGDOs choose from and what appears to be occurring? The author sets out answers to these questions and proceeds to analyse the pressures and forces involved in choosing, pointing towards devolution as the preferred option. The author argues that globalisation calls for a truly international response from NGOs, namely the formation of global associations. This article also appears in the Development in Practice Reader Development and Management.
  • The authors describe the phenomena of `perverse inertias' - effects and tendencies which are the opposite of what was intended - in the context of Southern responses to Northern NGOs. Two specific impacts on recipient populations are discussed. `The project culture', where `beneficiaries' feel compelled to invent as many projects as they can, in line with areas of perceived funding possibilities, which may not reflect real or most sorely felt needs. And `living by the wound', whereby communities recount their sufferings in order to receive assistance. The authors offer a critique of the way `lives and...expectations are taken over by others in the name of international solidarity'. This article is freely available as a chapter in Development and Advocacy.
  • Using the example of a project in Sheffield intended to promote user-involvement and participation in planning healthcare services, the author criticises the failure of the project to actually provide any forum for user-participation. The structures used to set up these partnerships are often too prescriptive, he argues, setting out a framework in which consultation may take place, and leaving no room for legitimate local interests which may not fit this framework. This article also appears in the Development in Practice Reader Development and Management.
  • The Assuit Burns Project (ABP) is a small Egyptian NGO working to help burns victims. The author describes the work of the Project, setting out its various capacities, and criticises funders' and donors' over-emphasis on preventative medicine at the expense of this type of curative work. Burns victims can become economic and social outcasts, and this impacts on development, and equity (particularly gender equity). This article also appears in the Development in Practice Reader Development and Management.
  • Six development managers working for Health Projects Abroad in Tanzania provide an account of a typical working day, outlining their work, their frustrations, and the way they are perceived by local communities, for example. This Practical Note provides an insight into the pressures on managers, who must cope with day-to-day tasks while maintaining perspective on the bigger picture. This article also appears in the Development in Practice Reader Development and Management.
  • This paper looks at a Gender Review conducted for Oxfam GB of their programme in Uganda. The Review found that the programme lacked a coherent strategy and gender work was invariably considered an add-on rather than an integrated part of development planning. They advocate developing a strategy for social change, including monitoring and evaluation mechanisms, and provision for capacity-building among staff and with local women's organisations. This article also appears in the Development in Practice Reader Development and Management.
  • This Practical note describes the work of the Southall Black Sisters, a group, based in London, England, which provides a variety of assistance to, mainly Asian, women who have been victims of domestic violence and abuse. The author discusses how the UK legal system fails to help some of these women, as well as how patriarchal Asian social structures enable this abuse to go unchecked and unreported. The SBS consciously try to challenge on many fronts at once, working 'against gender and racial oppression (including religious fundamentalism and communalism) and...[operating] at the level of the family, the community, and the state.' This article is freely available as a chapter in Development with Women.
  • The author examines the perception that information technology (IT) can be used to stamp out corruption in organisations. Using examples of corrupt practices, he argues that, invariably, development managers should consider the underlying organisational and environmental causes of corruption rather than seeing the introduction of IT systems as a solution in itself. This article also appears in the Development in Practice Reader Development and Management.
  • Thailand is experiencing the unfamiliar phenomenon of aid and multilateral agencies such as the World Bank and Asian Development Bank lending money for internal development programmes. In the economic boom years, aid was neither sought nor required since structural development was funded from the growth which South East Asian countries had begun to take for granted. Today, falling growth and rising unemployment linked to a depreciating currency and weak export markets have meant that Thailand has had to look elsewhere for development capital and to become proficient in managing educational projects. This article describes a rapid training needs analysis of the Thai educational sector commissioned by the British Council, the purpose of which was to discover the capacity of the education sector to undertake and deliver externally-funded projects. Using the Kolb learning cycle as a paradigm of good practice, and an adapted version of the soft systems approach to planning, the paper describes a learning process for developing an action plan to produce a training package for enhancing project management skills. Finally, the paper reflects on the experience of the project and sets out some learning objectives for future exercises of this type.
  • Using the findings of the 1996 Presidential Commission on Corruption in Tanzania, the author emphasises the impact petty corruption, especially bribery, has on poor populations. He proposes that international organisations recognise that controlling corruption should be part of poverty-reduction strategies, and needs to be tackled by increasing the political literacy of the affected populations - empowering citizens to complain about corruption. This article also appears in the Development in Practice Reader Development and Management.
  • Urban and industrial growth in developing countries makes the provision of adequate waste management services vital. Public sector-private sector partnerships (the authors describe potential structures for these partnerships) offer one way to manage this provision. The authors discuss how responsibility for public services should ultimately remain with the public sector, investigate different types of public-private partnership, and present five guiding principles for effective partnerships, as identified by the Cairo Workshop on Micro and Small Enterprise in Municipal Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries. This article also appears in the Development in Practice Reader Development and Management.
  • The author highlights a community participation scheme in Hyderabad, India, which allowed informal sector workers, organised by the Municipality, to take steps towards a more cost-effective and ecocentric method of waste management. This article also appears in the Development in Practice Reader Development and Management.
  • This paper focuses on the contradictory relationship between tools, always open to criticism as technocratic and mechanistic, and processes of development. It focuses on the tools often known as Logical Framework Approach (LFA) which are increasingly used as process tools by many different agencies, including those who espouse values of participation and empowerment. We assess the tools from the perspective of their use in public action-based approaches, as a means to improve clarity and focus in multi-actor interventions. No one tool can fulfil the range of tasks required in complex situations and LFA is useful as one of various options. We consider two of its limitations. First, it can be used in many different styles, including as a means to analyse public interest as contested terrain, or as a technocratic tool. Second, the focus on viewing assumptions as immutable can limit the effectiveness of interventions.
  • How organisations and associations can work together over time to develop new norms and practices which enhance the sustainability of development initiatives is an ongoing problem. This article looks at how processes of negotiating shared agendas over the meanings of sustainability, exploring assumptions behind proposed actions, establishing means of accountability and setting up mechanisms for investigating cause and effect in the processes and outcome of development programmes can be a source of action-learning. It is argued that such processes of action-learning can help lead to institutional sustainability.
  • The authors draw on experience from Uganda's commitment to decentralisation. This commitment is transforming the way services are planned and financed; new associations between local governments, NGOs, and private sector agencies are being created. Much attention has focused on the adoption of various techniques - such as participatory rural appraisal - through which direct and intensive forms of participation can be encouraged in decentralised planning. This trend is critically examined and potential unintended consequences are highlighted. A broader concept of accountability is outlined to illustrate a more inclusive approach to planning and allocation for more equity and sustainability in rural services.
  • In India, the pressing concern in education is with bringing in at least 32 million children estimated to be out of school, to meet the goal of Universal Elementary Education. Support for decentralisation of public services is widespread because of the equity and efficiency benefits associated with it. In particular, decentralisation is seen to facilitate the matching of services with local preferences, thus increasing the chances for policy goals to be met. This proposition is examined in the context of research carried out in a village of Raichur district in India, where poor households `preferences' with reference to school timings are analysed with a view to reflecting on their implications for education policy and management. The paper attempts to address the following concerns: how homogeneous are local preferences? What if these run counter to policy interests? Can aspects of services be selectively decentralised, or does the `production' of the sector as a whole require to be re-thought? The paper concludes with some thoughts on the importance of processes of `preference' articulation, and the need to recognise preferences implicit within policy intentions.
  • With its emphasis on target-setting and performance measures, the New Public Management appears to offer a coherent and `no-nonsense' approach to public sector reform and the public management task. This article suggests that three questions require further thought: `Management of what?', `Management by whom?', and `How to manage?' It considers these questions using the case of Community Based Health Care and its promotion by NGOs in Tanzania. The article argues that the task of public management is one of managing an arena of public action which includes (and excludes) a range of actors and agendas. Once this is taken into account, it becomes clear that the challenge to all development managers is how to manage more effective interdependence.
  • This paper is a comparative study of institutional change and efforts to create networks and linkages in the science and technology (S&T) systems of Poland and Tanzania at a time of market-led economic reform. It argues that in both countries, S&T has been hampered by linear approaches to technology transfer and that future efforts should focus on non-linear approaches involving multiple actors. Discussion focuses on a consideration of organisational goals and agendas, the resource base of different organisations, and fostering organisational capacities to learn, adapt, and change.
  • This paper looks at the opportunities for civil society organisations (CSOs) in Brazil to increase and diversify income. It demonstrates the range of potential new sources of funds, including the Brazilian public, commercial activities, and government institutions. The role of volunteers is also addressed. The institutional and cultural changes that CSOs must make in order to mobilise these resources are highlighted, along with associated risks, such as diversion away from their representational and advocacy roles, loss of political independence, and bureaucratisation. The paper then suggests how aid agencies might fulfil their responsibilities to help counterparts bolster income, and raises the possibility of more inter-institutional collaboration in what is increasingly a global rather than national activity. Finally, some comments are offered regarding the funding priorities of the international NGOs, given the new income opportunities facing CSOs. The main recommendation is that these concentrate on supporting advocacy work rather than service provision.